English Idioms
Pre-Questions
* What is the relation between collocation and idiom?
* Where do English idioms come from?
* What is the difference between phrasal verbs and verb phrases?
* What are the most important features of idioms? Why?
* Should structural stability be excluded? Why or why not?
* Definition
Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an idiom as a form of expression peculiar to language, person, or group of people, esp. one whose sense is not predictable from the meanings and arrangement of its elements.
John Sinclare (1991) holds an idiom is a group of two or more which are chosen together to produce a specific meaning or effect in speech or writing.
Idioms are said to be the sinew of the language by P. Cowie and R. Mackin.
Mr. Lu’s definition (refer to 2001:355)
Idioms are holophrastic(conventionalized multiword expressions), usu. fixed in form, often but not always non-literal, peculiar to a given culture
* Features
Idioms involve collocation of a special kind—restricted/frozen.
Soviet linguist V.V. Vinogradov called idioms phraseologisms
Idioms are distinguished bysemantic unity;
semantic opacity(for most idioms);
structural stability (for most idioms);
lasting idiomaticity;
* Sources
everyday life: to make both ends meet, etc.
agricultural life: to go to seed, to lead sb. up the garden path, etc.
nautical and military life: to be in the same boat with, to be in deep waters, etc.
business life: to turn an honest penny, etc.
campus life: to turn over a new leaf, etc.
the Bible: the apple of one’s eye, etc.
Shakespeare’s plays: to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeves, give the Devil his due, etc.
fables, myths or legends: the lion’s share, etc
peculiarity.
* Classification
English idioms can be classified according to 9 classification systems: (see to Wang Rong pei)
- semantic transparency;
- syntactic functional;
- typological;
- thematic;
- communicative;
- structural;
- head-word quantitative;
- register;
- etymological.
In terms of typological classification system, idioms can be classified into:
- Phrasal Verbs;
- Proverbs;
- Metaphorical Idioms;
- Similized Idioms;
- Binomials and Trinomials.
. Phrasal Verbs
1. Definition: Phrasal verbs are called multi-word verbs, mostly made up of verbs and particles (including adverbs and prepositions), having a unitary meaning.
According to Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, the most frequently-used verbs to form phrasal verbs are the following 38 verbs:
break, bring, call, cast, come, cut, do, fall, get, give, go, hang, hold, keep, kick, knock, lay, lie, live, look, make, move, pass, play, pull, push, put, run, send, set, sit, stand, stay, stick, take, talk, throw, turn. And the particles of the highest frequency are up, out, off, in, on.
2. Structures
Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English classifies phrasal verbs into 6 types in terms of syntactic structure:
(1) vi. + adv. come off, carry on
(2) vi.+ prep. run through, look into
(3) vi.+ adv.+prep. get along with, stand up to
(4) vt.+ adv. get across, take in
(5) vt.+ prep. put…through…, set…before…
(6) vt.+adv.+prep. fill…in on…, let…in for
3. Notes
A. Phrasal Verbs have special forms, which can be also called idiomatic verbs.
(1) v.+n. e.g. make peace, run risks
(2) v.+adj. e.g. come true, make sure
(3) v.+v. e.g. let slip, let pass, make believe
(4) v.+v.+prep. e.g. make do with
4. Structures
A verb phrase consists of a verb ( sometimes with its auxiliaries), its direct/indirect objects, and any adverb which happens to modify the verb.
Phrasal verbs usually are non-literal, e.g. walk out means go on strike; verb phrases are literal, e.g. walk the dog.
. Proverb
1. Definition:
Proverbs reflect a nation’s intelligence, wisdom and spirit. — Bacon
Proverb is the salt of language. —Arabian saying
Proverbs are children of experience. —English saying
Proverb is the crystal of people’s wisdom. —Chinese saying
Proverbs embody generally-accepted truths in a few simple but witty words.
2. Features
A. Thoughtfulness and Philosophy
Time tries all things.
The leopard cannot change its spots.
Behind the mountains there are people to be found.
A small leak will sink a great ship.
The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
B. Rich Life Experience
Soft fire makes sweet malt.
A penny saved is a penny gained.
Feed a cold and starve a fever.
Marry in haste and repent at leisure.
C. Vividness
It’s no use crying over spilt milk.
Fish begins to stink at the head.
D. Contrastiveness/Pro and Con
Too many cooks spoil the broth.
Two heads are better than one.
A good beginning makes a good ending.
It’s not over till it’s over.
E. Brevity
Jack of all trades, master of none.
Nothing venture, nothing gain.
Like father, like son.
Like cures like.
F. Figurative Language Use
(1) metaphor
Spare time is the gold dust of life.
(2) personification
Time and tide wait for no man.
Misery loves company.
Pride goes before a fall.
(3) Antithesis
Out of sight, out of mind.
Absence sharpens love, presence strengthens love.
(4) oxymoron
A friend to everybody is a friend to nobody.
(5) Rhyme and rhythm
No pains, no gains.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
A miss is as good as a mile.
Metaphorical and Similized Idioms
A. Metaphorical idioms are idioms with a metaphor, e.g.
the ace of trumps an apple of discord
the apple of one’s eye a bed of roses
a fish out of water a snake in the grass
a wild goose chase a wet blanket
an iron hand a dog in the manger
B. Similized Idioms can best illustrate cultural differences and display peculiarity.
as silly as an ass
as obstinate as a mule
as strong as a horse
as merry as a cricket
as timid as a hare
as brave as a lion
as blind as a bat
as poor as a church mouse
as fit as a fiddle
as cool as a cucumber
as like as two peas
as wise as Solomon
as rich as a Jew
as old as Adam
sleep like a log
drink like a fish
eat like a horse
smoke like a chimney
spring up like mushrooms
wet like a drowned rat
spread like wildfire
follow like a sheep
fight like cats and dogs
sell like hotcakes
a memory like a sieve
grow like a weed
cry like a baby
live like a king
spend money like water
packed like sardines
. Binomials and Trinomials
A. Binomials :
1. Definition:
Expressions combined by “and” or “or” to denote a single meaning are called irreversible binomials/twin-word idioms, coined by American linguist Yakov Malkiel in 1959.
British scholar H. W. Fowler called binomials siamese twins.
2. Surface Structure
(1) n.+n.
vice and crime
use and wont
sum and substance
hammer and tongs
(2) v.+v.
crash and burn
toss and turn
pick and choose
wine and dine
scrape and screw
push and shove
pick and steal
forgive and forget
divide and rule
(3) adj.+adj.
null and void
vague and wooly
black and blue
clean and neat
free and easy
fair and square
safe and sound
(4) adv.+adv.
really and truly
far and away
far and wide
once and away
by and large
there and then
through and through
(5) prep.+prep.
save and except
over and above
betwixt and between
(6) conj.+conj.
as and when
if and when
3. Features
The two elements of binomials are of the same part of speech.
The part of speech of a binomial is similar to that of its components.
A number of binomials are rhymed or alliterated.
4. Rhymed and Alliterated Binomials
(1) Rhymed:
art and part
bear and forbear
hustle and bustle
toil and moil
wear and tear
near and dear
flotsam and jetsam
(2) Alliterated
back and belly
bag and baggage
rant and rave
chop and change
spick and span
cut and carve
wail and weep
dribs and drabs
kith and kin
5. Relations between Components
(1) Repetition of Form:
by and by
again and again
neck and neck
out and out
round and round
lots and lots
word for word
(2) Repetition of Sense (Coordination/Reiteration)
far and wide
fuss and bother
part and parcel
leaps and bounds
rough and tough
whims and fancies
odds and ends
(3) Conjunction
bed and board
slow and steady
bread and butter
high and mighty
hum and haw
(4) Contrast/Juxtaposition
to and fro
pro and con
up and down
wax and wane
weal and woe
rain and shine
hit or miss
sink or swim
(5) Modification
cups and gold = golden cups
death and honor = honorable death
deceit and thought = deceitful thoughts
lime and water = lime water
might and main = main strength
grace and favor = gracious favor
B. Trinomials
Tom, Dick, and Harry/Brown, Jones and Robinson
Holy Father, Holy Son, and Holy Spirit
Of the people, by the people, and for the people
Ready! Set! Go!
Ready! Aim! Fire!
Going! Going! Gone!
lock, stock and barrel
hook, line and sinker
cool, calm and collected
hop, skip and jump
good, bad and indifferent
this, that and the other
wine, woman and song
right, left, and center
. Flexible Use of Idioms—Parody
Parody is a rhetorical device which is an imitation of the extant idioms with certain substitution of the original for deliberate exaggeration and comic effect, e.g.
a horse of another color ?
a horse of the same color (Shakespeare)
wet behind the ears ?
dry behind the ears
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well. ?
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing badly. (G.K. Chesterton)
A stitch in time saves nine. ?
A word in time saves nine.
A friend in need is a friend indeed. ?
A friend in need is a friend to be avoided.
Walls have ears. ?
People have ears.
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