English Idioms

English Idioms

Pre-Questions

* What is the relation between collocation and idiom?
* Where do English idioms come from?
* What is the difference between phrasal verbs and   verb phrases?
* What are the most important features of idioms? Why?
* Should structural stability be excluded? Why or why not? 

* Definition

Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an idiom as a form of expression peculiar to language, person, or group of people, esp. one whose sense is not predictable from the meanings and arrangement of its elements.
John Sinclare (1991) holds an idiom is a group of two or more which are chosen together to produce a specific meaning or effect in speech or writing.

Idioms are said to be the sinew of the language by P. Cowie and R. Mackin.
Mr. Lu’s definition (refer to 2001:355)
Idioms are holophrastic(conventionalized multiword expressions), usu. fixed in form, often but not always non-literal, peculiar to a given culture

* Features

Idioms involve collocation of a special kind—restricted/frozen.
Soviet linguist V.V. Vinogradov called idioms phraseologisms
Idioms are distinguished bysemantic unity; 
semantic opacity(for most idioms);
structural stability (for most idioms);
lasting idiomaticity;

* Sources

everyday life: to make both ends meet, etc.
agricultural life: to go to seed, to lead sb. up the garden path, etc.
nautical and military life: to be in the same boat with, to be in deep waters, etc.
business life:  to turn an honest penny, etc.
campus life: to turn over a new leaf, etc.
the Bible: the apple of one’s eye, etc.
Shakespeare’s plays: to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeves,  give the Devil his due, etc.
fables, myths or legends: the lion’s share, etc
peculiarity.

* Classification

English idioms can be classified according to 9 classification systems: (see to Wang Rong pei)

1. semantic transparency;
2. syntactic functional;
3. typological;
4. thematic;
5. communicative;
6. structural;
7. head-word quantitative;
8. register;
9. etymological. 

In terms of typological classification system, idioms can be classified into:

• Phrasal Verbs;
• Proverbs;
• Metaphorical Idioms;
• Similized Idioms;
• Binomials and Trinomials. 

. Phrasal Verbs

1. Definition: Phrasal verbs are called multi-word verbs, mostly made up of verbs and particles (including adverbs and prepositions), having a unitary meaning.

According to Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, the most frequently-used verbs to form phrasal verbs are the following 38 verbs: 

break, bring, call, cast, come, cut, do, fall, get, give, go, hang, hold, keep, kick, knock, lay, lie, live, look, make, move, pass, play, pull, push, put, run, send, set, sit, stand, stay, stick, take, talk, throw, turn. And the particles of the highest frequency are up, out, off, in, on.


2. Structures
Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English classifies phrasal verbs into 6 types in terms of syntactic structure:
(1) vi. + adv.      come off, carry on
(2) vi.+ prep.      run through, look into
(3) vi.+ adv.+prep.    get along with, stand up to
(4) vt.+ adv.               get across, take in
(5) vt.+ prep.       put…through…, set…before…
(6) vt.+adv.+prep.      fill…in on…, let…in for

3. Notes
A. Phrasal Verbs have special forms, which can be also called idiomatic verbs.
(1) v.+n.  e.g. make peace, run risks
(2) v.+adj.  e.g. come true, make sure
(3) v.+v.  e.g. let slip, let pass, make believe
(4) v.+v.+prep.  e.g. make do with

4. Structures
A verb phrase consists of a verb ( sometimes with its auxiliaries), its direct/indirect objects, and any adverb which happens to modify the verb.
Phrasal verbs usually are non-literal, e.g. walk out means go on strike; verb phrases are literal, e.g. walk the dog. 

. Proverb

1. Definition:
Proverbs reflect a nation’s intelligence, wisdom and spirit. — Bacon
Proverb is the salt of language. —Arabian saying
Proverbs are children of experience. —English saying
Proverb is the crystal of people’s wisdom. —Chinese saying
Proverbs embody generally-accepted truths in a few simple but witty words.


2. Features

A. Thoughtfulness and Philosophy

     Time tries all things.

     The leopard cannot change its spots.

     Behind the mountains there are people to be found.

     A small leak will sink a great ship.

     The proof of the pudding is in the eating.

B. Rich Life Experience
    Soft fire makes sweet malt.
    A penny saved is a penny gained.
    Feed a cold and starve a fever.
    Marry in haste and repent at leisure.

C. Vividness
      It’s no use crying over spilt milk.
      Fish begins to stink at the head.

D. Contrastiveness/Pro and Con
     Too many cooks spoil the broth. 
     Two heads are better than one.
    A good beginning makes a good ending. 
    It’s not over till it’s over.

E. Brevity
    Jack of all trades, master of none.
    Nothing venture, nothing gain.
    Like father, like son.
    Like cures like.

F. Figurative Language Use
   (1) metaphor
        Spare time is the gold dust of life.
   (2) personification
        Time and tide wait for no man.
        Misery loves company.
        Pride goes before a fall.
  (3) Antithesis
        Out of sight, out of mind.
        Absence sharpens love, presence strengthens love.
  (4) oxymoron
        A friend to everybody is a friend to nobody. 
 (5) Rhyme and rhythm
       No pains, no gains.
      A friend in need is a friend indeed.
      A miss is as good as a mile.

Metaphorical and Similized Idioms

A. Metaphorical idioms are idioms with a metaphor, e.g.
    the ace of trumps                 an apple of discord
    the apple of one’s eye        a bed of roses
    a fish out of water                a snake in the grass
    a wild goose chase             a wet blanket
    an iron hand                         a dog in the manger 


B. Similized Idioms can best illustrate cultural differences and display peculiarity.

     as silly as an ass
    as obstinate as a mule
    as strong as a horse
    as merry as a cricket
    as timid as a hare
    as brave as a lion
    as blind as a bat

    as poor as a church mouse
    as fit as a fiddle
    as cool as a cucumber
    as like as two peas
    as wise as Solomon
    as rich as a Jew
    as old as Adam

    sleep like a log
    drink like a fish
    eat like a horse
    smoke like a chimney
    spring up like mushrooms
    wet like a drowned rat
    spread like wildfire
    follow like a sheep

    fight like cats and dogs
    sell like hotcakes
    a memory like a sieve
    grow like a weed 
    cry like a baby
    live like a king
    spend money like water
    packed like sardines

. Binomials and Trinomials

A. Binomials :

1. Definition: 
Expressions combined by “and” or “or” to denote a single meaning are called irreversible binomials/twin-word idioms, coined by American linguist Yakov Malkiel in 1959.
British scholar H. W. Fowler called binomials siamese twins.  

2. Surface Structure

(1) n.+n.  

vice and crime 

use and wont 

sum and substance 

hammer and tongs 

(2) v.+v. 
crash and burn 
toss and turn 
pick and choose 
wine and dine 
scrape and screw 
push and shove
pick and steal 
forgive and forget 
divide and rule 

(3) adj.+adj.
null and void 
vague and wooly 
black and blue 
clean and neat 
free and easy 
fair and square 
safe and sound 

(4) adv.+adv.
really and truly 
far and away 
far and wide 
once and away 
by and large 
there and then 
through and through 

(5) prep.+prep.

save and except
over and above
betwixt and between

(6) conj.+conj.
as and when
if and when

3. Features

The two elements of binomials are of the same part of speech.
The part of speech of a binomial is similar to that of its components.
A  number of binomials are rhymed or alliterated.

4. Rhymed and Alliterated Binomials

(1) Rhymed:

art and part 
bear and forbear 
hustle and bustle 
toil and moil 
wear and tear 
near and dear 
flotsam and jetsam 

(2) Alliterated

back and belly 
bag and baggage 
rant and rave 
chop and change 
spick and span 
cut and carve 
wail and weep 
dribs and drabs 
kith and kin 

5. Relations between Components

(1) Repetition of Form:

by and by
again and again
neck and neck
out and out
round and round
lots and lots
word for word

(2) Repetition of Sense  (Coordination/Reiteration)

far and wide 
fuss and bother 
part and parcel 
leaps and bounds 
rough and tough 
whims and fancies 
odds and ends

(3) Conjunction

bed and board 
slow and steady 
bread and butter 
high and mighty 
hum and haw 

(4) Contrast/Juxtaposition

to and fro
pro and con
up and down
wax and wane
weal and woe
rain and shine
hit or miss
sink or swim

(5) Modification

cups and gold = golden cups
death and honor = honorable death
deceit and thought = deceitful thoughts
lime and water = lime water
might and main = main strength
grace and favor = gracious favor

B. Trinomials

Tom, Dick, and Harry/Brown, Jones and Robinson
Holy Father, Holy Son, and Holy Spirit
Of the people, by the people, and for the people
Ready! Set! Go!
Ready! Aim! Fire!
Going! Going! Gone!
lock, stock and barrel
hook, line and sinker
cool, calm and collected
hop, skip and jump
good, bad and indifferent
this, that and the other
wine, woman and song
right, left, and center

. Flexible Use of Idioms—Parody

Parody  is a rhetorical device which is an imitation of the extant idioms with certain substitution of the original for deliberate exaggeration and comic effect, e.g.

a horse of another color ?
a horse of the same color (Shakespeare)
wet behind the ears ? 
dry behind the ears
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well. ?
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing badly. (G.K. Chesterton)
A stitch in time saves nine. ?
A word in time saves nine.
A friend in need is a friend indeed. ?
A friend in need is a friend to be avoided.
Walls have ears. ? 
People have ears. 

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